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# Only for beginners [39]
This category contains some introductions and tutorials about UBUNTU and BACKTRACK for those who just start using LINUX.
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Main » # Only for beginners

Recovering a Broken System

Sometimes, things go wrong, and the system you've carefully installed is no longer bootable. Perhaps the boot loader configuration broke while trying out a change, or perhaps a new kernel you installed won't boot, or perhaps cosmic rays hit your disk and flipped a bit in /sbin/init. Regardless of the cause, you'll need to have a system to work from while you fix it, and rescue mode can be useful for this.

To access rescue mode, type rescue at the boot: prompt, or boot with the rescue/enable=true boot parameter. You'll be shown the first few screens of the installer, with a note in the corner of the display to indicate that this is rescue mode, not a full installation. Don't worry, your system is not about to be overwritten! Rescue mode simply takes advantage of the hardware detection facilities available in the installer to ensure that your disks, network devices, and so on are available to you while repairing your system.

Instead of the partitioning tool, you should now be presented with a list of the partitions on your system, and asked to select one of them. Normally, you should select the partition containing the root file system that you need to repair. You may select partitions on RAID and LVM devices as well as those created directly on disks.

If possible, the installer will now present you with a shell prompt in the file system you selected, which you can use to perform any necessary repairs. For example, if you need to reinstall the GRUB boot loader into the master boot record of the first hard disk, you could enter the command grub-install '(hd0)' to do so. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 734 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Compiling a New Kernel

Why would someone want to compile a new kernel? It is often not necessary since the default kernel shipped with Ubuntu handles most configurations. Also, Ubuntu often offers several alternative kernels. So you may want to check first if there is an alternative kernel image package that better corresponds to your hardware. However, it can be useful to compile a new kernel in order to:

  • handle special hardware needs, or hardware conflicts with the pre-supplied kernels

  • use options of the kernel which are not supported in the pre-supplied kernels (such as high memory support)

  • optimize the kernel by removing useless drivers to speed up boot time

  • create a monolithic instead of a modularized kernel

  • run an updated or development kernel

  • learn more about linux kernels

Kernel Image Management

Don't be afraid to try compiling the kernel. It's fun and profitable.

To compile a kernel the Debian/Ubuntu way, you need some packages: fakeroot, kernel-package, linux-source-2.6 and a few others which are probably already installed (see /usr/share/doc/kernel-package/README.gz for the complete list).

This method will make a .deb of your kernel source, and, if you have non-standard modules, make a synchronized dependent .deb of those too. It's a better way to manage kernel images; /boot will hold the kernel, the System.map, and a log of the active config file for the build.

Note that you don't have to compile your kernel the "Debian/Ubuntu way; but we find that using the packaging system to manage your kernel is actually safer and easier. In fact, you can get your kernel sources right from Linus instead of linux-source-2.6, yet still use the kernel-package compilation method.

Note that you'll find complete documentation on using kernel-package under /usr/share/doc/kernel-package. This section just contains a brief tutorial.

Hereafter, we'll assume you have free rein over your machine and will extract your kernel source to somewhere in your home directory. We'll also assume that your kernel version is 2.6.35. Make sure you are in the directory to where you want to unpack the kernel sources, extract them using tar xjf /usr/src/linux-source-2.6.35.tar.bz2 and change to the directory linux-source-2.6.35 that will have been created. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 733 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Setting Up Your System To Use E-Mail

Today, email is an important part of many people's life. As there are many options as to how to set it up, and as having it set up correctly is important for some Ubuntu utilities, we will try to cover the basics in this section.

There are three main functions that make up an e-mail system. First there is the Mail User Agent (MUA) which is the program a user actually uses to compose and read mails. Then there is the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) that takes care of transferring messages from one computer to another. And last there is the Mail Delivery Agent (MDA) that takes care of delivering incoming mail to the user's inbox.

These three functions can be performed by separate programs, but they can also be combined in one or two programs. It is also possible to have different programs handle these functions for different types of mail.

On Linux and Unix systems mutt is historically a very popular MUA. Like most traditional Linux programs it is text based. It is often used in combination with exim or sendmail as MTA and procmail as MDA.

With the increasing popularity of graphical desktop systems, the use of graphical e-mail programs like GNOME's evolution, KDE's kmail or Mozilla's thunderbird is becoming more popular. These programs combine the function of a MUA, MTA and MDA, but can — and often are — also be used in combination with the traditional Linux tools. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 760 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Further Reading and Information

If you need information about a particular program, you should first try man program, or info program.

There is lots of useful documentation in /usr/share/doc as well. In particular, /usr/share/doc/HOWTO and /usr/share/doc/FAQ contain lots of interesting information. To submit bugs, look at /usr/share/doc/debian/bug*. To read about Debian/Ubuntu-specific issues for particular programs, look at /usr/share/doc/(package name)/README.Debian.

The Debian web site contains a large quantity of documentation about Debian. In particular, see the Debian GNU/Linux FAQ and the Debian Reference. An index of more Debian documentation is available from the Debian Documentation Project. The Debian community is self-supporting; to subscribe to one or more of the Debian mailing lists, see the Mail List Subscription page. Last, but not least, the Debian Mailing List Archives contain a wealth of information on Debian.

Help on Ubuntu can be found on the Ubuntu web site. In particular, see the Ubuntu documentation pages for information on a wide variety of topics. The Ubuntu mailing lists and the Ubuntu Forums can be invaluable sources of help from the Ubuntu community. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 613 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Orienting Yourself to Ubuntu

Ubuntu is a little different from other distributions. Even if you're familiar with Linux in other distributions, there are things you should know about Ubuntu to help you to keep your system in a good, clean state. This chapter contains material to help you get oriented; it is not intended to be a tutorial for how to use Ubuntu, but just a very brief glimpse of the system for the very rushed.

Ubuntu Packaging System

The most important concept to grasp is the Ubuntu packaging system, which may be familiar to those who have already used Debian GNU/Linux. In essence, large parts of your system should be considered under the control of the packaging system. These include:

  • /usr (excluding /usr/local)

  • /var (you could make /var/local and be safe in there)

  • /bin

  • /sbin

  • /lib

For instance, if you replace /usr/bin/perl, that will work, but then if you upgrade your perl package, the file you put there will be replaced. Experts can get around this by putting packages on "hold in aptitude.

One of the best installation methods is apt. You can use the command line version apt-get, the full-screen text version aptitude, or the graphical version synaptic. Note apt will also let you merge main, contrib, and non-free so you can have export-restricted packages as well as standard versions. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 717 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

If You Are New to Unix

If you are new to Unix, you probably should go out and buy some books and do some reading. A lot of valuable information can also be found in the Debian Reference. This list of Unix FAQs contains a number of UseNet documents which provide a nice historical reference.

Linux is an implementation of Unix. The Linux Documentation Project (LDP) collects a number of HOWTOs and online books relating to Linux. Most of these documents can be installed locally; just install the doc-linux-html package (HTML versions) or the doc-linux-text package (ASCII versions), then look in /usr/share/doc/HOWTO. International versions of the LDP HOWTOs are also available as Ubuntu packages.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 600 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Shutting down the system

To shut down a running Linux system, you must not reboot with the reset switch on the front or back of your computer, or just turn off the computer. Linux should be shut down in a controlled manner, otherwise files might get lost and/or disk damage might occur. If you run a desktop environment, there is usually an option to "log out available from the application menu that allows you to shutdown (or reboot) the system.

Alternatively you can press the key combination Ctrl+Alt+Del . A last option is to log in as root and type one of the commands poweroff, halt or shutdown -h now if either of the key combinations do not work or you prefer to type commands; use reboot to reboot the system.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 643 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Log In

Once your system boots, you'll be presented with the login prompt. Log in using the personal login and password you selected during the installation process. Your system is now ready for use.

If you are a new user, you may want to explore the documentation which is already installed on your system as you start to use it. There are currently several documentation systems, work is proceeding on integrating the different types of documentation. Here are a few starting points.

Documentation accompanying programs you have installed can be found in /usr/share/doc/, under a subdirectory named after the program (or, more precise, the Debian package that contains the program). However, more extensive documentation is often packaged separately in special documentation packages that are mostly not installed by default. For example, documentation about the package management tool apt can be found in the packages apt-doc or apt-howto.

In addition, there are some special folders within the /usr/share/doc/ hierarchy. Linux HOWTOs are installed in .gz (compressed) format, in /usr/share/doc/HOWTO/en-txt/. After installing dhelp, you will find a browsable index of documentation in /usr/share/doc/HTML/index.html. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 818 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Mounting encrypted volumes

If you created encrypted volumes during the installation and assigned them mount points, you will be asked to enter the passphrase for each of these volumes during the boot. The actual procedure differs slightly between dm-crypt and loop-AES.

dm-crypt

For partitions encrypted using dm-crypt you will be shown the following prompt during the boot:

Starting early crypto disks... part_crypt(starting)
Enter LUKS passphrase:

In the first line of the prompt, part is the name of the underlying partition, e.g. sda2 or md0. You are now probably wondering for which volume you are actually entering the passphrase. Does it relate to your /home? Or to /var? Of course, if you have just one encrypted volume, this is easy and you can just enter the passphrase you used when setting up this volume. If you set up more than one encrypted volume during the installation, the notes you wrote down as the last step in the section called "Configuring Encrypted Volumes” come in handy. If you did not make a note of the mapping between part_crypt and the mount points before, you can still find it in /etc/crypttab and /etc/fstab of your new system.

The prompt may look somewhat different when an encrypted root file system is mounted. This depends on which initramfs generator was used to generate the initrd used to boot the system. The example below is for an initrd generated using initramfs-tools:

Begin: Mounting root file system... ...
Begin: Running /scripts/local-top ...
Enter LUKS passphrase:

No characters (even asterisks) will be shown while entering the passphrase. If you enter the wrong passphrase, you have two more tries to correct it. After the third try the boot process will skip this volume and continue to mount the next filesystem. Please see the section called "Troubleshooting” for further information.

After entering all passphrases the boot should continue as usual. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 1107 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

The Moment of Truth

Your system's first boot on its own power is what electrical engineers call the "smoke test.

If you did a default installation, the first thing you should see when you boot the system is the menu of the grub or possibly the lilo bootloader. The first choices in the menu will be for your new Ubuntu system. If you had any other operating systems on your computer (like Windows) that were detected by the installation system, those will be listed lower down in the menu.

If the system fails to start up correctly, don't panic. If the installation was successful, chances are good that there is only a relatively minor problem that is preventing the system from booting Ubuntu. In most cases such problems can be fixed without having to repeat the installation. One available option to fix boot problems is to use the installer's built-in rescue mode (see the section called "Recovering a Broken System”).

If you had any other operating systems on your computer that were not detected or not detected correctly, please file an installation report.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 637 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

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