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Main » 2012 » February » 08

Recovering a Broken System

Sometimes, things go wrong, and the system you've carefully installed is no longer bootable. Perhaps the boot loader configuration broke while trying out a change, or perhaps a new kernel you installed won't boot, or perhaps cosmic rays hit your disk and flipped a bit in /sbin/init. Regardless of the cause, you'll need to have a system to work from while you fix it, and rescue mode can be useful for this.

To access rescue mode, type rescue at the boot: prompt, or boot with the rescue/enable=true boot parameter. You'll be shown the first few screens of the installer, with a note in the corner of the display to indicate that this is rescue mode, not a full installation. Don't worry, your system is not about to be overwritten! Rescue mode simply takes advantage of the hardware detection facilities available in the installer to ensure that your disks, network devices, and so on are available to you while repairing your system.

Instead of the partitioning tool, you should now be presented with a list of the partitions on your system, and asked to select one of them. Normally, you should select the partition containing the root file system that you need to repair. You may select partitions on RAID and LVM devices as well as those created directly on disks.

If possible, the installer will now present you with a shell prompt in the file system you selected, which you can use to perform any necessary repairs. For example, if you need to reinstall the GRUB boot loader into the master boot record of the first hard disk, you could enter the command grub-install '(hd0)' to do so. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 734 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Compiling a New Kernel

Why would someone want to compile a new kernel? It is often not necessary since the default kernel shipped with Ubuntu handles most configurations. Also, Ubuntu often offers several alternative kernels. So you may want to check first if there is an alternative kernel image package that better corresponds to your hardware. However, it can be useful to compile a new kernel in order to:

  • handle special hardware needs, or hardware conflicts with the pre-supplied kernels

  • use options of the kernel which are not supported in the pre-supplied kernels (such as high memory support)

  • optimize the kernel by removing useless drivers to speed up boot time

  • create a monolithic instead of a modularized kernel

  • run an updated or development kernel

  • learn more about linux kernels

Kernel Image Management

Don't be afraid to try compiling the kernel. It's fun and profitable.

To compile a kernel the Debian/Ubuntu way, you need some packages: fakeroot, kernel-package, linux-source-2.6 and a few others which are probably already installed (see /usr/share/doc/kernel-package/README.gz for the complete list).

This method will make a .deb of your kernel source, and, if you have non-standard modules, make a synchronized dependent .deb of those too. It's a better way to manage kernel images; /boot will hold the kernel, the System.map, and a log of the active config file for the build.

Note that you don't have to compile your kernel the "Debian/Ubuntu way; but we find that using the packaging system to manage your kernel is actually safer and easier. In fact, you can get your kernel sources right from Linus instead of linux-source-2.6, yet still use the kernel-package compilation method.

Note that you'll find complete documentation on using kernel-package under /usr/share/doc/kernel-package. This section just contains a brief tutorial.

Hereafter, we'll assume you have free rein over your machine and will extract your kernel source to somewhere in your home directory. We'll also assume that your kernel version is 2.6.35. Make sure you are in the directory to where you want to unpack the kernel sources, extract them using tar xjf /usr/src/linux-source-2.6.35.tar.bz2 and change to the directory linux-source-2.6.35 that will have been created. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 733 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Setting Up Your System To Use E-Mail

Today, email is an important part of many people's life. As there are many options as to how to set it up, and as having it set up correctly is important for some Ubuntu utilities, we will try to cover the basics in this section.

There are three main functions that make up an e-mail system. First there is the Mail User Agent (MUA) which is the program a user actually uses to compose and read mails. Then there is the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) that takes care of transferring messages from one computer to another. And last there is the Mail Delivery Agent (MDA) that takes care of delivering incoming mail to the user's inbox.

These three functions can be performed by separate programs, but they can also be combined in one or two programs. It is also possible to have different programs handle these functions for different types of mail.

On Linux and Unix systems mutt is historically a very popular MUA. Like most traditional Linux programs it is text based. It is often used in combination with exim or sendmail as MTA and procmail as MDA.

With the increasing popularity of graphical desktop systems, the use of graphical e-mail programs like GNOME's evolution, KDE's kmail or Mozilla's thunderbird is becoming more popular. These programs combine the function of a MUA, MTA and MDA, but can — and often are — also be used in combination with the traditional Linux tools. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 760 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Further Reading and Information

If you need information about a particular program, you should first try man program, or info program.

There is lots of useful documentation in /usr/share/doc as well. In particular, /usr/share/doc/HOWTO and /usr/share/doc/FAQ contain lots of interesting information. To submit bugs, look at /usr/share/doc/debian/bug*. To read about Debian/Ubuntu-specific issues for particular programs, look at /usr/share/doc/(package name)/README.Debian.

The Debian web site contains a large quantity of documentation about Debian. In particular, see the Debian GNU/Linux FAQ and the Debian Reference. An index of more Debian documentation is available from the Debian Documentation Project. The Debian community is self-supporting; to subscribe to one or more of the Debian mailing lists, see the Mail List Subscription page. Last, but not least, the Debian Mailing List Archives contain a wealth of information on Debian.

Help on Ubuntu can be found on the Ubuntu web site. In particular, see the Ubuntu documentation pages for information on a wide variety of topics. The Ubuntu mailing lists and the Ubuntu Forums can be invaluable sources of help from the Ubuntu community. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 613 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Orienting Yourself to Ubuntu

Ubuntu is a little different from other distributions. Even if you're familiar with Linux in other distributions, there are things you should know about Ubuntu to help you to keep your system in a good, clean state. This chapter contains material to help you get oriented; it is not intended to be a tutorial for how to use Ubuntu, but just a very brief glimpse of the system for the very rushed.

Ubuntu Packaging System

The most important concept to grasp is the Ubuntu packaging system, which may be familiar to those who have already used Debian GNU/Linux. In essence, large parts of your system should be considered under the control of the packaging system. These include:

  • /usr (excluding /usr/local)

  • /var (you could make /var/local and be safe in there)

  • /bin

  • /sbin

  • /lib

For instance, if you replace /usr/bin/perl, that will work, but then if you upgrade your perl package, the file you put there will be replaced. Experts can get around this by putting packages on "hold in aptitude.

One of the best installation methods is apt. You can use the command line version apt-get, the full-screen text version aptitude, or the graphical version synaptic. Note apt will also let you merge main, contrib, and non-free so you can have export-restricted packages as well as standard versions. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 717 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

If You Are New to Unix

If you are new to Unix, you probably should go out and buy some books and do some reading. A lot of valuable information can also be found in the Debian Reference. This list of Unix FAQs contains a number of UseNet documents which provide a nice historical reference.

Linux is an implementation of Unix. The Linux Documentation Project (LDP) collects a number of HOWTOs and online books relating to Linux. Most of these documents can be installed locally; just install the doc-linux-html package (HTML versions) or the doc-linux-text package (ASCII versions), then look in /usr/share/doc/HOWTO. International versions of the LDP HOWTOs are also available as Ubuntu packages.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 600 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Shutting down the system

To shut down a running Linux system, you must not reboot with the reset switch on the front or back of your computer, or just turn off the computer. Linux should be shut down in a controlled manner, otherwise files might get lost and/or disk damage might occur. If you run a desktop environment, there is usually an option to "log out available from the application menu that allows you to shutdown (or reboot) the system.

Alternatively you can press the key combination Ctrl+Alt+Del . A last option is to log in as root and type one of the commands poweroff, halt or shutdown -h now if either of the key combinations do not work or you prefer to type commands; use reboot to reboot the system.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 643 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Log In

Once your system boots, you'll be presented with the login prompt. Log in using the personal login and password you selected during the installation process. Your system is now ready for use.

If you are a new user, you may want to explore the documentation which is already installed on your system as you start to use it. There are currently several documentation systems, work is proceeding on integrating the different types of documentation. Here are a few starting points.

Documentation accompanying programs you have installed can be found in /usr/share/doc/, under a subdirectory named after the program (or, more precise, the Debian package that contains the program). However, more extensive documentation is often packaged separately in special documentation packages that are mostly not installed by default. For example, documentation about the package management tool apt can be found in the packages apt-doc or apt-howto.

In addition, there are some special folders within the /usr/share/doc/ hierarchy. Linux HOWTOs are installed in .gz (compressed) format, in /usr/share/doc/HOWTO/en-txt/. After installing dhelp, you will find a browsable index of documentation in /usr/share/doc/HTML/index.html. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 818 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Mounting encrypted volumes

If you created encrypted volumes during the installation and assigned them mount points, you will be asked to enter the passphrase for each of these volumes during the boot. The actual procedure differs slightly between dm-crypt and loop-AES.

dm-crypt

For partitions encrypted using dm-crypt you will be shown the following prompt during the boot:

Starting early crypto disks... part_crypt(starting)
Enter LUKS passphrase:

In the first line of the prompt, part is the name of the underlying partition, e.g. sda2 or md0. You are now probably wondering for which volume you are actually entering the passphrase. Does it relate to your /home? Or to /var? Of course, if you have just one encrypted volume, this is easy and you can just enter the passphrase you used when setting up this volume. If you set up more than one encrypted volume during the installation, the notes you wrote down as the last step in the section called "Configuring Encrypted Volumes” come in handy. If you did not make a note of the mapping between part_crypt and the mount points before, you can still find it in /etc/crypttab and /etc/fstab of your new system.

The prompt may look somewhat different when an encrypted root file system is mounted. This depends on which initramfs generator was used to generate the initrd used to boot the system. The example below is for an initrd generated using initramfs-tools:

Begin: Mounting root file system... ...
Begin: Running /scripts/local-top ...
Enter LUKS passphrase:

No characters (even asterisks) will be shown while entering the passphrase. If you enter the wrong passphrase, you have two more tries to correct it. After the third try the boot process will skip this volume and continue to mount the next filesystem. Please see the section called "Troubleshooting” for further information.

After entering all passphrases the boot should continue as usual. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 1107 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

The Moment of Truth

Your system's first boot on its own power is what electrical engineers call the "smoke test.

If you did a default installation, the first thing you should see when you boot the system is the menu of the grub or possibly the lilo bootloader. The first choices in the menu will be for your new Ubuntu system. If you had any other operating systems on your computer (like Windows) that were detected by the installation system, those will be listed lower down in the menu.

If the system fails to start up correctly, don't panic. If the installation was successful, chances are good that there is only a relatively minor problem that is preventing the system from booting Ubuntu. In most cases such problems can be fixed without having to repeat the installation. One available option to fix boot problems is to use the installer's built-in rescue mode (see the section called "Recovering a Broken System”).

If you had any other operating systems on your computer that were not detected or not detected correctly, please file an installation report.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 637 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Loading Missing Firmware

As described in the section called "Devices Requiring Firmware”, some devices require firmware to be loaded. In most cases the device will not work at all if the firmware is not available; sometimes basic functionality is not impaired if it is missing and the firmware is only needed to enable additional features.

If a device driver requests firmware that is not available, debian-installer will display a dialog offering to load the missing firmware. If this option is selected, debian-installer will scan available devices for either loose firmware files or packages containing firmware. If found, the firmware will be copied to the correct location (/lib/firmware) and the driver module will be reloaded.

[Note]

Which devices are scanned and which file systems are supported depends on the architecture, the installation method and the stage of the installation. Especially during the early stages of the installation, loading the firmware is most likely to succeed from a FAT-formatted floppy disk or USB stick. On i386 and amd64 firmware can also be loaded from an MMC or SD card.

Note that it is possible to skip loading the firmware if you know the device will also function without it, or if the device is not needed during the installation.

[Warning]

Support for loading firmware is still relatively basic and is likely to be improved in future releases of the installer. Currently debian-installer will for example not display any warning if you choose to load missing firmware, but the requested firmware is not found. Please report any issues you encounter by filing an installation report (see the section called "Submitting Installation Reports”).

Preparing a medium

Although in some cases the firmware can also be loaded from a partition on a hard disk, the most common method to load firmware will be from some removable medium such as a floppy disk or a USB stick. The firmware files or packages must be placed in either the root directory or a directory named /firmware of the file system on the medium. The recommended file system to use is FAT as that is most certain to be supported during the early stages of the installation.

Tarballs containing current packages for the most common firmware are available from:

Just download the tarball for the correct release and unpack it to the file system on the medium.

If the firmware you need is not included in the tarball, you can also download specific firmware packages from the (non-free section of the) archive. The following overview should list most available firmware packages but is not guaranteed to be complete and may also contain non-firmware packages:

It is also possible to copy individual firmware files to the medium. Loose firmware could be obtained for example from an already installed system or from a hardware vendor. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 1084 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Components Introduction

Here is a list of installer components with a brief description of each component's purpose. Details you might need to know about using a particular component are in the section called "Using Individual Components”.

main-menu

Shows the list of components to the user during installer operation, and starts a component when it is selected. Main-menu's questions are set to priority medium, so if your priority is set to high or critical (high is the default), you will not see the menu. On the other hand, if there is an error which requires your intervention, the question priority may be downgraded temporarily to allow you to resolve the problem, and in that case the menu may appear.

You can get to the main menu by selecting the Go Back button repeatedly to back all the way out of the currently running component. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 780 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

How the Installer Works

The Ubuntu Installer (based on the Debian Installer, and so often called simply debian-installer) consists of a number of special-purpose components to perform each installation task. Each component performs its task, asking the user questions as necessary to do its job. The questions themselves are given priorities, and the priority of questions to be asked is set when the installer is started.

When a default installation is performed, only essential (high priority) questions will be asked. This results in a highly automated installation process with little user interaction. Components are automatically run in sequence; which components are run depends mainly on the installation method you use and on your hardware. The installer will use default values for questions that are not asked.

If there is a problem, the user will see an error screen, and the installer menu may be shown in order to select some alternative action. If there are no problems, the user will never see the installer menu, but will simply answer questions for each component in turn. Serious error notifications are set to priority "critical so the user will always be notified.

Some of the defaults that the installer uses can be influenced by passing boot arguments when debian-installer is started. If, for example, you wish to force static network configuration (DHCP is used by default if available), you could add the boot parameter netcfg/disable_dhcp=true. See the section called "Ubuntu Installer Parameters” for available options.

Power users may be more comfortable with a menu-driven interface, where each step is controlled by the user rather than the installer performing each step automatically in sequence. To use the installer in a manual, menu-driven way, add the boot argument priority=medium.

If your hardware requires you to pass options to kernel modules as they are installed, you will need to start the installer in "expert mode. This can be done by either using the expert command to start the installer or by adding the boot argument priority=low. Expert mode gives you full control over debian-installer.

For this architecture the debian-installer supports two different user interfaces: a character-based one and a graphical one. The character-based interface is used by default unless you selected the "Graphical install option in the initial boot menu. For more information about the graphical installer, please refer to the section called "The Graphical Installer”.

In the character-based environment the use of a mouse is not supported. Here are the keys you can use to navigate within the various dialogs. The Tab or right arrow keys move "forward, and the Shift+Tab or left arrow keys move "backward between displayed buttons and selections. The up and down arrow select different items within a scrollable list, and also scroll the list itself. In addition, in long lists, you can type a letter to cause the list to scroll directly to the section with items starting with the letter you typed and use Pg-Up and Pg-Down to scroll the list in sections. The space bar selects an item such as a checkbox. Use Enter to activate choices. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 982 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Troubleshooting the Installation Process

CD-ROM Reliability

Sometimes, especially with older CD-ROM drives, the installer may fail to boot from a CD-ROM. The installer may also — even after booting successfully from CD-ROM — fail to recognize the CD-ROM or return errors while reading from it during the installation.

There are many different possible causes for these problems. We can only list some common issues and provide general suggestions on how to deal with them. The rest is up to you.

There are two very simple things that you should try first.

  • If the CD-ROM does not boot, check that it was inserted correctly and that it is not dirty.

  • If the installer fails to recognize a CD-ROM, try just running the option Detect and mount CD-ROM a second time. Some DMA related issues with older CD-ROM drives are known to be resolved in this way.

If this does not work, then try the suggestions in the subsections below. Most, but not all, suggestions discussed there are valid for both CD-ROM and DVD, but we'll use the term CD-ROM for simplicity.

If you cannot get the installation working from CD-ROM, try one of the other installation methods that are available.

Common issues

  • Some older CD-ROM drives do not support reading from discs that were burned at high speeds using a modern CD writer.

  • If your system boots correctly from the CD-ROM, it does not necessarily mean that Linux also supports the CD-ROM (or, more correctly, the controller that your CD-ROM drive is connected to).

  • Some older CD-ROM drives do not work correctly if "direct memory access (DMA) is enabled.

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 1517 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Boot Parameters

Boot parameters are Linux kernel parameters which are generally used to make sure that peripherals are dealt with properly. For the most part, the kernel can auto-detect information about your peripherals. However, in some cases you'll have to help the kernel a bit.

If this is the first time you're booting the system, try the default boot parameters (i.e., don't try setting parameters) and see if it works correctly. It probably will. If not, you can reboot later and look for any special parameters that inform the system about your hardware.

Information on many boot parameters can be found in the Linux BootPrompt HOWTO, including tips for obscure hardware. This section contains only a sketch of the most salient parameters. Some common gotchas are included below in the section called "Troubleshooting the Installation Process”.

When the kernel boots, a message

Memory:availk/totalk available

should be emitted early in the process. total should match the total amount of RAM, in kilobytes. If this doesn't match the actual amount of RAM you have installed, you need to use the mem=ram parameter, where ram is set to the amount of memory, suffixed with "k for kilobytes, or "m for megabytes. For example, both mem=65536k and mem=64m mean 64MB of RAM.

If you are booting with a serial console, generally the kernel will autodetect this. If you have a videocard (framebuffer) and a keyboard also attached to the computer which you wish to boot via serial console, you may have to pass the console=device argument to the kernel, where device is your serial device, which is usually something like ttyS0.

Ubuntu Installer Parameters

The installation system recognizes a few additional boot parameters which may be useful.

A number of parameters have a "short form that helps avoid the limitations of the kernel command line options and makes entering the parameters easier. If a parameter has a short form, it will be listed in brackets behind the (normal) long form. Examples in this manual will normally use the short form too.

debconf/priority (priority)

This parameter sets the lowest priority of messages to be displayed.

The default installation uses priority=high. This means that both high and critical priority messages are shown, but medium and low priority messages are skipped. If problems are encountered, the installer adjusts the priority as needed.

If you add priority=medium as boot parameter, you will be shown the installation menu and gain more control over the installation. When priority=low is used, all messages are shown (this is equivalent to the expert boot method). With priority=critical, the installation system will display only critical messages and try to do the right thing without fuss. ... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 1545 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Accessibility

Some users may need specific support because of e.g. some visual impairment. USB braille displays are detected automatically, but most other accessibility features have to be enabled manually. On machines that support it, the boot menu emits a beep when it is ready to receive keystrokes. Some boot parameters can then be appended to enable accessibility features. Note that on most architectures the boot loader interprets your keyboard as a QWERTY keyboard.

USB Braille Displays

USB braille displays should be automatically detected. A textual version of the installer will then be automatically selected, and support for the braille display will be automatically installed on the target system. You can thus just press Enter at the boot menu. Once brltty is started, you can choose a braille table by entering the preference menu. Documentation on key bindings for braille devices is available on the brltty website.

Serial Braille Displays

Serial braille displays cannot safely be automatically detected (since that may damage some of them). You thus need to append the brltty=driver,port,table boot parameter to tell brltty which driver it should use. driver should be replaced by the two-letter driver code for your terminal (see the driver code list). port should be replaced by the name of the serial port the display is connected to, ttyS0 is the default. table is the name of the braille table to be used (see the table code list); the English table is the default. Note that the table can be changed later by entering the preference menu. Documentation on key bindings for braille devices is available on the brltty website.

Hardware Speech Synthesis

Support for hardware speech synthesis devices is available only alongside support for graphical installer. You thus need to select the "Graphical install entry in the boot menu.

Hardware speech synthesis devices cannot be automatically detected. You thus need to append the speakup.synth=driver boot parameter to tell speakup which driver it should use. driver should be replaced by the driver code for your device (see driver code list). The textual version of the installer will then be automatically selected, and support for the speech synthesis device will be automatically installed on the target system.

Board Devices

Some accessibility devices are actual boards that are plugged inside the machine and that read text directly from the video memory. To get them to work framebuffer support must be disabled by using the vga=normal fb=false boot parameter. This will however reduce the number of available languages.

If desired a textual version of the bootloader can be activated before adding the boot parameter by typing h Enter.

... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 641 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

Booting the Installer on Intel x86

[Warning]

If you have any other operating systems on your system that you wish to keep (dual boot setup), you should make sure that they have been properly shut down before you boot the installer. Installing an operating system while another operating system is in hibernation (has been suspended to disk) could result in loss of, or damage to the state of the suspended operating system which could cause problems when it is rebooted.

[Note]

For information on how to boot the graphical installer, see the section called "The Graphical Installer”.

Booting from a CD-ROM

The easiest route for most people will be to use an Ubuntu CD. If you have a CD, and if your machine supports booting directly off the CD, great! Simply configure your system for booting off a CD as described in the section called "Boot Device Selection”, insert your CD, reboot, and proceed to the next chapter.

Note that certain CD drives may require special drivers, and thus be inaccessible in the early installation stages. If it turns out the standard way of booting off a CD doesn't work for your hardware, revisit this chapter and read about alternate kernels and installation methods which may work for you.

If you have problems booting, see the section called "Troubleshooting the Installation Process”.

Booting from Linux Using LILO or GRUB

To boot the installer from hard disk, you must first download and place the needed files as described in the section called "Preparing Files for Hard Disk Booting”.

If you intend to use the hard drive only for booting and then download everything over the network, you should download the netboot/ubuntu-installer/i386/initrd.gz file and its corresponding kernel netboot/ubuntu-installer/i386/linux. This will allow you to repartition the hard disk from which you boot the installer, although you should do so with care.

For LILO, you will need to configure two essential things in /etc/lilo.conf:

  • to load the initrd.gz installer at boot time;

  • have the vmlinuz kernel use a RAM disk as its root partition.

Here is a /etc/lilo.conf example:

image=/boot/newinstall/vmlinuz
 label=newinstall
 initrd=/boot/newinstall/initrd.gz

For more details, refer to the initrd(4) and lilo.conf(5) man pages. Now run lilo and reboot.

The procedure for GRUB is quite similar. Locate your menu.lst in the /boot/grub/ directory (or sometimes /boot/boot/grub/) and add an entry for the installer, for example (assuming /boot is on the first partition of the first disk in the system):

title New Install
root (hd0,0)
kernel /boot/newinstall/vmlinuz
initrd /boot/newinstall/initrd.gz

From here on, there should be no difference between GRUB or LILO.

... Read more »

Category: # Only for beginners | Views: 797 | Added by: Administrator | Date: 2012-02-08 | Comments (0)

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